نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی
نویسندگان
1 دانشجوی دکتری، گروه تاریخ و باستان شناسی، واحد تهران مرکزی،دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران
2 دانشیار گروه باستان شناسی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران/ رئیس پژوهشگاه میراث فرهنگی کشور
3 استادیار گروه تاریخ و باستان شناسی، واحد تهران مرکزی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران
چکیده
کلیدواژهها
موضوعات
عنوان مقاله [English]
نویسندگان [English]
Mithraism, also known as the Religion of Mithras, is one of the ancient and well-documented religions of the ancient East, with origins tracing back to the second millennium BCE. Archaeological and religious sources indicate that this ritual entered the Indian subcontinent and the Iranian plateau via the Indo-European peoples. Over time, Mithraism spread westward as a religious bricolage, affecting cultures from East to West and existing in the West under the name Mithraism until the 4th century CE. Mithraea, or temples dedicated to Mithras, represent significant centers of worship for Mithraists. These sacred places were where the devotees gathered to carry out their religious obligations and rituals. Notably, Mithraea display remarkable artistic and architectural features, with one of the most iconic being the religious depiction of the Tauroctony scene at the center of the altar. The Tauroctony is a central motif within Mithraic worship, usually shown as a representation of Mithras sacrificing a bull in the presence of his companions. This scene, whether depicted in reliefs, sculptures, plaques, or paintings, is not only an artistic expression but also an essential and inseparable part of Mithraic cult centers. It is considered a key symbol of the Mithraic Mysteries, a system of secret religious teachings and rituals associated with the cult of Mithras.
The Tauroctony scene, showing Mithras in the act of bull-sacrifice, plays a vital role in conveying the philosophical and theological principles of Mithraism. This scene, drawn in various forms across the geographical spread of Mithraism, reflects a consistent conceptualization of the cult’s underlying beliefs, despite regional variations. The term Tauroctony, meaning "bull-slaying," was first used by the Roman poet Statius in the 1st century CE in his epic Thebaid. The word and the scene it represents have been a subject of scholarly interpretation ever since. German scholar Franz Stark initially linked the Tauroctony motifs to stars and constellations, associating each character in the scene with a counterpart in the zodiac. His work was later contested by the Belgian scholar Franz Cumont, who proposed that the Tauroctony motif had its roots in the ritual practice of sacrificing a bull and bathing in its blood for the "Great Mother" goddess in Phrygia, Asia Minor. As a result, scholars have proposed two distinct interpretations of Tauroctony: an Eastern-Avestan interpretation and a Western-astronomical one. While these interpretations differ, most agree that the ritual structure of Tauroctony is central to understanding the eschatology and purpose of Mithraic practice.
Due to the lack of original written texts from the Mithraic religion, the Tauroctony scene serves as one of the few reliable sources for studying Mithraism and its rituals. These visual representations not only demonstrate the religious affiliation of the worshippers with Mithras, but also offer a glimpse into the timing and execution of their sacred rituals. As such, this motif plays a pivotal role in understanding the cult of Mithras and the development of its religious art. The research into the Tauroctony scene attempts to clarify several important aspects of Mithraism: its etymology, the origins of its artistic representations, and how the scene evolved geographically and over time. This study seeks to identify the time and place of the earliest known examples of the Tauroctony, the geographical framework of its expansion, and the artistic developments that took place in different regions.
This paper examines and analyzes 61 examples of Tauroctony scenes from 19 different countries worldwide, using a descriptive-analytical-statistical-comparative approach. The chosen examples were selected from regions with a small but notable number of Tauroctony representations, as well as from books, scholarly articles, and catalogs. The study adopts a comparative methodology, which assumes that Mithraism originated in the East and traces the spread of Tauroctony scenes from East to West. The 61 selected samples provide a comprehensive view of the geographical spread of this religious symbol over a period of approximately 900 years, offering valuable insights into how the Tauroctony motif evolved over time and space.
The study's primary focus is the classification and typology of the Tauroctony scenes, which reveals key insights into the artistic continuity and change within the Mithraic tradition. These changes are reflective of the different stages in the artistic training of early Mithraic artists, as well as the distinct artistic schools that developed in various regions of the Mithraic world. The 61 examples are categorized based on three main criteria: 1) the technical features of the Tauroctony scene, including object type, gender, inscription, dimensions, the number of characters depicted, and symmetry; 2) the main characters of the Tauroctony scene, such as Mithras, the bull, the snake, the dog, and the scorpion; and 3) the secondary characters, which include the raven, Mithras's companions, Sol and Luna, as well as additional elements like lions, stars, zodiac signs, and aquatic animals. Once these scenes are classified, they can be further typologized into different types and styles. This typology is essential for understanding how the Tauroctony scene was adapted to communicate particular theological or philosophical ideas specific to each region.
The typology of Tauroctony scenes is crucial for understanding how they evolved over time. Each of the scenes within the three categories can be depicted in several different forms or subspecies. This means that the Tauroctony scene had multiple variations that differed based on the location, the community’s specific beliefs, and the local iconography. By analyzing these variations, it becomes clear that the changes in the Tauroctony scenes were not random; rather, they reflect the changing beliefs and religious ideologies of Mithraic practitioners as they spread across different cultures. The evolution of these scenes provides insight into the theological concepts emphasized by Mithraic artists in different periods and geographical locations.
The study concludes that there were three main artistic schools responsible for the creation of Tauroctony scenes: the Eastern, Central, and Western schools. These schools correspond to the three primary geographical regions where Mithraism flourished, with each region contributing distinct features to the representation of the Tauroctony. In each of these artistic schools, changes in the design of the scenes occurred as the cult spread, shaped by regional beliefs and the preferences of local communities. Some artistic features of the Tauroctony scene were created in one region and later exported to others, while some features remained confined to their original location. These regional variations of the Tauroctony scene carry valuable insights into the local religious beliefs, regional iconography, and the transmission of Mithraic rituals from one area to another.
In terms of chronological development, the oldest known examples of Tauroctony scenes are from the Achaemenid period in Egypt. The styles used in these early examples can be seen as the models for later representations of the Tauroctony scene. Over time, as Mithraism spread from the East to the West, the artistic style of the Tauroctony scene evolved, with each region incorporating its own cultural influences. This progression is evident in the changes in the portrayal of the main and secondary characters, as well as the incorporation of additional elements like the zodiac signs, celestial bodies, and animals. These variations reflect the diverse religious, astronomical, and cultural influences that shaped the Mithraic world.
In conclusion, the Tauroctony scene is a central and enduring symbol of Mithraism, representing both the religious beliefs and the artistic traditions of Mithraic worshippers across different regions and periods. Through the study of the typology and evolution of these scenes, this research highlights the adaptability and continuity of the Mithraic cult, offering insights into how religious motifs evolved over time and how they were influenced by the changing social, cultural, and geographical contexts of the Mithraic world.
کلیدواژهها [English]
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